Leading Retailer Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Leading Retailer - Case Study Example The main aim of the company is to help people save money to help live better. The growth of the company over the years has been immense. The company pays a lot of attentions to the needs of the stakeholders and helps provide the stakeholders with the desired results. The biggest retailer in the world with over 971 discount stores, 2447 super centres, 132 neighborhood markets, and 591 Sam's clubs in the US, Wal - Mart has been able to very smoothly make its way to the top of the retailing industry. The company is spread over the 14 countries and employees almost over 2.1 million people. The company has made enormous revenue of over $378,799 million for the year - end January 2008. Being the largest retailer in the world, Wal - Mart is faced with a lot of competition and making all the happenings, issues, events etc of Wal -Mart always in the limelight (Money Central, 2008). The company works on the basic values which mainly revolve around the respect for individuals, service to customers and striving for excellence. The management of the company is said to be very efficient and the managers are known to be work by the values of the firm. However the company still faces a number of issues pertaining it employees, each of whom are known as associates in the company. The vision of the company is to become the leaders of the retail industry. This however can only be achieved by ensuring that the customers receive what they desire out of the company. The mission of the company highlights their constant need to improve the services provided to exceed customer expectations and to provide customers with reasonably priced goods of great quality. The company's basic va lues of respect for individuals, service to customers and striving for excellence speaks for itself. Wal - Mart has tried to ensure it reaches out to the majority of the American population and the major customer groups accounting to almost 23 percent belong to families where the annual income is lesser than $25,000. It was also noted that almost half of the customers of the superstore are blue-collar workers and most of the families are either unemployed or elderly (Featherstone, 2005). The Issues: Wal - Mart in some recent reports has been accused of not treating their employees fairly and making the employees work over the shift hours. The company has also been accused for paying the employees much lower than what they should receive. According to a number of reports the employees have actually disclosed the fact that they receive pays which are way below the minimum level of pay that has to be given to the employees. The company claims to give importance to the employee's growth and careers. The company's website claims to provide the employees with a competitive pay, skills development and health benefits for the employee and family. However a recent article in Business Week highlighted the fact that the company has been paying employees about $8.23 per hour, or $13,861 a year. This pay is well below the federal poverty line of $14, 630 for a family of three. Other

The Fast Food Industry in Houston, Texas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Fast Food Industry in Houston, Texas - Essay Example In 2010, Ibisworld report indicated that McDonald’s Corporation had a market share of 12.7 percent, Wendy’s had 6.6 percent, Starbucks Corporation had 5.9 percent, and Burgers King Corporation had 5.1 percent (Schlosser, 2012). This indicates that these four companies are the leading market players in Houston’s fast food industry with McDonald’s corporation being the market leader. Additionally, according, McDonald’s share price is $90.79. In 2011, the company’s profit rose to 19 percent that is equivalent to revenue of $6.91 billion. Wendy’s current-year income is projected at $2.69 billion, and Jack in the Box earnings and revenue is projected at $2.16 billion and $1.53 a share (Schlosser, 2012). In spite of gloomy economic condition, Houston fast food industry is experiencing robust economic growth. Studies have predicted that the fast food market is expected to grow in the coming years, and will cross the $179 Billion mark by 2013 (Schlosser, 2012). The fast food industry, like any other industry, also experiences the economic ups and downs. In addition, they provide products and services that many other businesses depend on. Various business trends such as social and financial markets significantly affect the economic status of fast food market. Some of the key factors that affect the demand and supply of fast food include health, supply, spending and financing. The impact of fast foods on health is one of the most significant challenges.

Security Issues in Peer-to-peer Networking

Security Issues in Peer-to-peer Networking ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The interest in the field of networking, driven me to take the computer networking as my course in M.Sc. there are many different types of networks. Out of them the more popularized and upcoming trend of networks are peer-to-peer networks. This report of my final dissertation for the partial fulfilment of my M.Sc, computer networking, would not have been possible without the support of my supervisor, Mr. Harry Benetatos. He helped me a lot by guiding me and pin-pointing the key mistakes which I have done during my research. My course leader Mr. Nicholas Ioannides also helped me a lot to complete this dissertation. His advises and suggestions gave me a lot of encouragement and support which made me do this research and finish it in time. I am very thankful to my university, LONDON METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY which provided me the free access to the IEEE library which helped me to find the key papers which are very useful for my research. I also thank my parents for their support given to me in all walks of my life. DEDICATION: I dedicate this report to my parents and my well wisher Sakshi for their constant support and encouragement throughout my education and life. CHAPTER 1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT: This dissertation is all about the security issues in the peer-to-peer networks. There are many security issues in peer-to-peer networks. I have chosen to do research on worm intrusions in peer-to-peer networks. In this document I have mentioned how the worm propagates in the network from one peer to another peer, how the worm can be detected and how the detected worm can be attacked and save the network from getting infected. 1.2 AIM: Security issue in Peer-to-peer networks: Securing the peer-to-peer network from worms.   1.3 OBJECTIVES: Ø To understand how the peers communicate with each other in the peer-to-peer network Ø To analyse the propagation of worms in the network. Ø To detect the worms near the nodes of the network Ø To defence the worms in the network. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION: This document briefly discusses about how the worms propagates in the network and how can it be detected and attacked in order to save the peer-to-peer network 1.5 APPROACH: My approach for this dissertation is as follows: Ø Understanding peer-to-peer networks Ø Defining the problem Ø Data collection and analysis Ø Study and understanding the existing solutions for the problem Ø Comparing different solutions Ø conclusion 1.6 METHODOLOGY: This section of my document contains what important steps to be followed in order to achieve the mentioned objectives. It also helps to schedule how to develop and complete different parts of the dissertation. In this dissertation firstly I will study and understand about the peer-to-peer networks and how the peers in the networks communicate and share information with the remaining peer in the network. Then I do research on how the worm propagates in the network, how can the worm be detected and how the detected worm can be attacked and restore the network.   In the pictorial form the different stages of my dissertation are 1.7 PREVIEW ABOUT THE COMING CHAPTERS IN THE REPORT: The rest of the report is organised as follows: in the chapter 2, there is brief discussion about the peer-to-peer networks, different types of peer-to-peer networks, advantages and disadvantages of the peer-to-peer networks. There is also some information about the worms, its nature and different types of worms. In chapter 3, there is a discussion about the methods given by the different person to detect the worm in the network by the method of matching the characteristic string of the worm. In section 4, there is a solution for this issue. That is mathematical method of detecting the worm in the network and defending it. Chapter 5 consists of a critical appraisal and suggestions for the further work. Finally, I concluded in chapter 6. CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE GENERIC AREA AND IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM: 2.1 NETWORK: Network is a group of electronic devices which are connected to each other in order to communicate which each other.   The devices can be computers, laptops, printers etc. networks can be wired or wireless. Wired networks are networks in which the devices are connected with the help of wires. Wireless networks are the networks in which the devices are connected without the wires. There are many different types of networks and peer-to-peer is one of the important and special types of networks. 2.2 PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: Peer-to-peer networks are emerged in 1990 because of the development of the peer-to-peer file sharing like Napster [1].   Peer-to-peer networks abbreviated as p2p networks are the networks in which all the nodes or peers in the network acts as servers as well as clients on demand. This is unlike typical client server model, in which the clients requests the services and server supplies the resources. But in case of peer-to-peer networks every node in the networks requests services like a client and every node will supply the resources like server on demand. Peer-to-peer network doesn’t need any centralized server coordination.   Peer-to-peer network is scalable. Addition of new nodes to the network or removal of already existing nodes on the network doesn’t affect the network. That means addition or removal of nodes can be done dynamically. All the nodes connected in a peer-to-peer network run on the same network protocol and software. Resources available on a node in the network are available to the remaining nodes of the network and they can access this information easily. Peer-to-peer networks provide robustness and scalability. All the wired and wireless networks can be configured as peer-to-peer networks. Home networks and small enterprise networks are preferable to configure in a peer-to-peer networks. Most the networks are not pure peer-to-peer networks because of they use some network interface devices. In the beginning, the information is stored at all the nodes by making a copy of it. But this increases the flow of traffic in the network. But now, a centralised system is maintained by the network and the requests are directed to the nodes which contains the relevant information. This will save the time and the traffic flow in the network. 2.3 WIRELESS NETWORKS: Devices connected to each other without any wires can also be configured like peer-to-peer networks. In a case of small of number of devices it is preferable to configure the network in wireless peer-to-peer networks because it will be easy to share the data in both the directions. It is even cheaper to connect the networks in wireless peer-to-peer because we do not need to spend on the wires. Peer-to-peer networks are divided into three types. They are: Instant messaging networks Collaborative networks Affinity community networks[2] Instant messaging networks: In this type of peer-to-peer networks, the users can chat with each other in real time by installing some software such as MSN messenger, AOL instant messenger etc. Collaborative networks: This type of peer-to-peer networks are also called as distributed computing.   This is widely used in the field of science and biotechnology where the intense computer processing is needed. Affinity community peer-to-peer networks: It is a type of p2p network, where the group of devices are connected only for the purpose of sharing the data among them. Peer to peer networks are basically classified into two types. They are: Ø Structured peer-to-peer networks Ø Unstructured peer-to-peer networks 2.4 STRUCTURED PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: In the structured peer-to-peer nodes connected in the network are fixed. They use distributed hashing table (DHT) for indexing [4]. In DHT data is stored in the form of hash table like (key, value). Any node willing to retrieve the data can easily do that using the keys. The mapping of values to the keys are maintained by all the nodes present in the network such that there will be very less disruption in case of change in the set of participants DHT-based networks are very efficient in retrieving the resources. 2.5 UNSTRUCTURED PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: In unstructured p2p network nodes are established arbitrarily. There are three types of unstructured p2p networks. They are Pure peer-to-peer Hybrid peer-to-peer Centralized peer-to-peer In Pure p2p networks all the nodes in the network are equal. There won’t be any preferred node with special infrastructure function. In hybrid p2p networks there will be a special node called â€Å"supernodes† [3] . This supernode can be any node in the network depending on the momentary need of the network. Centralized p2p network is a type of hybrid network in which there will be one central system which manages the network. The network cannot be able to work without this centralized system Basically, all the nodes in the peer-to-peer networks contain the information of the neighbour in its routing table. The rate of propagation of worms in the peer-to-peer networks is larger than compared to the other networks. This is because the information of the neighbour peers can easily achieved from the routing table of the infected node. Different types of files are shared between the nodes in the peer-to-peer networks. These files can be the audio files, video files, music files, text documents, books; articles etc. there are a lot of peer-to-peer software available these days in the market for sharing the files. Some of them are bittorrent, limeware, shareaza, kazaa, Imesh, bearshare Lite, eMule, KCeasy, Ares Galaxy, Soulseek, WinMX, Piolet, Gnutella, Overnet, Azureus (vuze), FrostWire, uTorrent, Morpheus, Ants, Acquisition[5]. There are lot more file sharing softwares in the market but these are the top 20 file sharing softwares for peer-to-peer networks. Basically, all the nodes connected together in the network should configure with the same network protocol and the same software should be installed in all the nodes in order to communicate with each other. Else the nodes in the network cannot communicate if they are configured with the different software or protocol. 2.6 ADVANTAGES OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS [6]: It is more useful for the small business network comprising of very small number of computer systems or devices. Computers in this network can be configured easily. Full time network administrator is not required for the p2p networks. Easy maintenance of the network. Only a single operating system and less number of cables needed to get connected Can be installed easily Users can control the shared resources Distributed nature of the network increases the robustness of the network. 2.7 DISADVANTAGES OF THE PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS [12]: No centralised administration Back-up should be performed on the each computer individually. Peer-to-peer networks are not secure Every computer in the network behaves as server and client which can slow down the performance of the system Legal controversy with the copyrights. 2.8 WORM: Worm is a computer malware program or it can be called as a mischievous code which can multiple itself   into several replicas or it duplicate itself into several copies. Worm in simple can be called as â€Å"autonomous intrusion agent† [19] .It doesn’t actually alters the function of the system but it pass through i.e., worm is unlike virus.   It intrudes the network without the mediation of the user. This is first detected by Robert T Morris in 1988[18]. Today we have some billions of systems connected to internet. Bu during 1988 there were only 60,000 systems connected to the internet. During that period 10% of the internet systems i.e., 6000 of the systems are infected and almost clogged because of the worms [8]. Worms when enters the system it hides in the operating system where it cannot be noticeable [18] . It drastically slows down the system the effect the other programs in the system. In worst cases it could even effect the entire network and slow down the internet across whole world. As it is said earlier that it replicates itself into multiple copies and attach itself to the emails and corrupt them and sometimes deleting the file without the user interaction. If it enters our email, it can able to send itself to all the contacts in our email book and then to all the contacts of the emails of our email book and likewise it propagates, grow and spread at the higher rate. Worms will even create the â€Å"backdoor† into the computer [11]. This will make the attackers to send spam easily. Some famous worms discovered in 2003 and 2004 are â€Å"Mydoom†, â€Å" Sobig† and â€Å"Sasser†[7].   â€Å"Sasser† worm has recently affected the computers which are using Windows 2000 or Windows XP operating system. It restarts the system automatically and crashes it. It is spread to all the nodes in the network. There are some worms which are unlike the normal worms. These worms are very useful to the user some times. Hence, these are called the â€Å"helpful worms† [9]. Sometimes they help users without the interaction with the user. But most of the known worms are harmful and will always tries to infect the nodes in the network and affect the performance of the network. When the peer-to-peer networks are attacked by the worms, it slows down the efficiency of the network. So there is a need to save the networks from entering into the network and spreading itself all over the network. The worms should be detected and defended. If we delay in defending these worms, they replicate itself and makes many copies of itself and spread all through the network. This is very dangerous to the network as it affects the performance and efficiency of the network [10]. CHAPTER 3 RELEVANT WORK DONE BY OTHERS IN ORDER TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM: Many people proposed solutions to this problem. First Zhou L gave solution to p2p worm and he observed that propagation of worm in p2p network is very speed when compared to other networks[13] . Jayanthkumar performed some simulations on worm propagation from infected node to other node[10]. Wei yu researched on the behaviour of worms in p2p networks[14]. In my research I found one more interesting method of detecting the worms in the peer-to-peer network. This is indeed a special method of detecting the worms in network because the authors Yu Yao, Yong Li, Fu-xiang Gao, Ge Yu in their paper titled â€Å"A Signature-behaviour-based P2P worm detection approach† they proposed a mechanism of detecting the known worms in the peer-to-peer networks based on characteristic string matching. Worm make use of vulnerabilities in the network and +Spreads[15]. They also proposed the detection mechanism for the unknown worms based on their behaviour. They technique mainly consists of the te chnology of characteristic string matching, identifying the application and the unknown worm detection technology. They have given the algorithm for the matching the characteristics string of the worm called suffix-tree algorithm- suffix array algorithm. This is efficient and simple with very less time complexity. As peer-to-peer network follows fragment transfer technique there is chance of assigning the characteristics string of the worm to the other blocks of data. And again during the reorganisation process this characteristic string can identify the worm. These authors even validated their results by simulation. They proved that their method is also one of the efficient methods of p2p worm detection. As mentioned above this method detects the known worm and also the unknown worms based on characteristic string matching and their behaviour respectively. In this method they initially capture the network packets using the library function called â€Å"LibPcap†. â€Å"LibPcap† is the library function that captures the network packets in UNIX and Linux platforms. This function contains many functions that will be useful for capturing the network packets. After capturing the data packets with help of these functions the non-P2P packets are filtered out. So now the P2P packets are filtered. In these P2P packets the known worms are detected by using the characteristic string matching. This is implemented by the couple of algorithms. They are the â€Å"suffix array algorithm† and the â€Å"dichotomy algorithm†. These algorithms are very accurate and are capable of detecting the worms in very less time. As I mentioned above peer-to-peer networks follow fragment transfer mechanism. Hence the characteristic string of the worm can be assigned to the other blocks of data. So, in this situation it is difficult to detect the worm if the characteristic string of the worm is based on the single packet. But if the characteristic string is present in the block then there is a chance of detecting the worm because it will assign it to the two packets. At this time the worm characteristic string present in the two different data packets need to restructure. After restructuring, the worm can be detected by using the matching mechanism. In this way the known worm in the network is detected by using the characteristic string matching. The unknown worms in the p2p network can be detected with the help of the act characteristics of the worm at the initial stage of its propagation. This can be called as the behaviour based detection of the unknown p2p worms. Like this all the known and unknown worms in the network are detected. 3.1 P2P KNOWN WORM DETECTION: There are four steps in detecting the p2p known worms. They are: Deal flow Technology of identifying the application Characteristic string matching Reorganising the characteristic string 3.1.1 DEAL FLOW: In this step of deal flow the flow of data is divided into four steps[16]. Step 1: Extracting the p2p data stream from the original data stream. Step 2: check the extracted p2p data stream for worms using characteristic string matching with the worms already existing in the library function. Step 3: data is flow is reorganised. It now contains worm characteristic string as well. Go to step 2. Step 4: check the data flow for unknown worms using unknown worm detection techniques. After performing the four steps update the library function. All the four steps is represented   pictorially as in the next page. Figure 4: flow chart representing four steps to detect worms   yes    normal  Ã‚  Normal no  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Abnormal abnormal 3.1.2 TECHNOLOGY OF IDENTIFYING THE APPLICATION: As said earlier, this paper uses the method of capturing the data packets and sca it for the worms which are known with the help of a function library called â€Å"LibPcap†[17] . For this there should be already some assigned rules in the network interface devices. So assigning these rules to those devices is done in stepwise procedure as: Identify the available network interface devices Open the network interface device Compile the rules that we are willing to attach to the devices Setup the rules of filtering to the device Now operate the equipment Start the process of capturing the packets There are some rules for identifying the p2p application. They are: Characteristic information of the known p2p is used Sometimes, if source-destination IP pairs don’t use the known P2P and they may use TCP and UDP at same time, then they are p2p. At a particular time source pairs {srcIP, srcport}[27] and the destination pairs {dstIP, dstport}[27] are checked Here we can identify whether it’s a p2p or not. If the number of connection port is equal to the number of connection IP, then we can say that it is a p2p. There are the situations where these rules have been used unruly. So the there were some amendments made to these rules. The amendments are rule (2) can identify even the mazes which are present and rule (3) is modified in such a way that in the detect cycle {srcIP, srcport}[27] pairs at the source and the {dstIP,   dstport }[27] pairs at the destination are checked. From this they derived that if the number of connection port is equal to the number of connection IP, the protocols which are used are same. If they are different then the protocols are different. 3.1.3 CHARACTERISTIC STRING MATCHING: This is the most important section of the paper. Here authors have given some definitions to the terms which we are going to use, the algorithms which we are going to use to detect the worm. Couple of algorithms are mentioned. They are suffix-array algorithm and the dichotomy algorithm. So the entire process of detecting the worm depends on the efficiency and the accuracy of these algorithms. First of all before using and understanding suffix-array algorithm we will try to understand some keywords and rules. Suffix: suffix is the part of a string or a substring which starts at a particular location to the end of the string. If a suffix in the string S starts at the location ‘i’ to the end of the string S, then the suffix can be represented as Suffix(i)=S[i,Len(S) ][27] . Let us understand how the strings can be compared. The comparison in this paper followed â€Å"dictionary comparison† If u and v are the two different strings. Comparing the strings u and v is same like comparing u[i] and v[i], where ‘i’ starts with the value 1. Ø Here string u is equal to string v i.e., u=v when u[i]=v[i] Ø String u is greater then string v i.e., u>v when u[i]>v[i] Ø String u is less than string v i.e., u But the results were still not obtained for i>len(u) or i>len(v) Also if len(u)>len(v) then u >v, if len(u) Suffix-array: suffix-array is denoted by SA. It is a one-dimensional array. It is an array of SA[1], S[2], SA[3],†¦. And so on. Here s[i] Rank-array: rank-array is nothing but SA-1. If SA[i]=j, then Rank[j]=i. we can say that the rank[i] saves the rank of Suffix(i) in an ascending order for all the suffixes. In this paper the author has taken the example of string â€Å"science† and explained everything clearly. The string â€Å"science† can generate seven suffixes. They are: Suffix(1): science Suffix(2): cience Suffix(3): ience Suffix(4): ence Suffix(5): nce Suffix(6): ce Suffix(7): e When we sort out everything in a dictionary order it will be in the order as follow Suffix(6)= ce Suffix(2)= cience Suffix(7)= e Suffix(4)= ence Suffix(3)= ience Suffix(5)= nce Suffix(1)= science Suffix-array algorithm follows multiplier ideas. Firstly get SA1 and Rank1 by comparing every character in the string. Comparing string is similar to comparing the every character sequentially. So by comparing every character, SA1 and Rank1 can derive SA2 and Rank2. And this SA2 and Rank2 will derive SA4 and Rank4. And this will again derive SA8 and Rank8. So finally suffix-array and rank-array are derived from this process. The main process of the suffix-array algorithm is Ø Calculating SA1 and Rank1. Firstly all the suffixes are arranged in the first letter order and then suffix-array (SA1) is generated by using quick sorry algorithm and then Rank1 is also generated. Ø Comparing 2k-prefix Suffix(i) and Suffix(j) using SAk and Rankk. 2k-Suffix(i) = 2k-Suffixes(j), this is equivalent to Rankk[SAk[i]] = Rankk[SAk[j]] and Rankk[SAk[i+k]] = Rankk[SAk[j+k]] 2k-Suffix(i) Suffix-array algorithm is a sorting algorithm which sorts out the characteristic string. So, this uses binary search algorithm. The algorithm follows Step 1: in the first step values are assigned like left=1, right=n and max_match=0 Step 2: the middle value i.e., mid= (left +right)/2. Step 3: comparing the characters corresponding to Suffix (SA[mid]) and P. the longest public prefix r can be helpful in implantation and comparison. If r > max_match, then max_match=r. Step 4: if Suffix(SA[mid])   If Suffix(SA[mid])>P, then right=mid-1   If Suffix(SA[mid])=P, then go to step 6 Step 5: if left Step 6: if max_match= m, then print â€Å"match is successful†. 3.1.4 REORGANISING THE CHARACTERISTIC STRING: In this step the characteristic string is reorganised. If the character string is divided into two different data blocks, then the data block with the partial characteristic string is stored. Basically, all the information about the data block like index, beginning offset, length of the block and so on are contained at the head of the each block. Here a structure piece is defined which consists of index of the block, beginning offset of the block offset, length of the character array head and the length of the character array end[18]. Initially each and every data packet is compared with the characteristic string for matching. If it is matched then the warning or an alert is sent to all the users about the worm. Here if the tail of the characteristic string of the worm matches with the head of the data block, then it will be stored in the character array end. And if the head of the characteristic string of the worm matches with the tail of the data block then it is stored in the corr esponding character array head. Suppose if the neighbouring data block contains a partial characteristic string of the worm then the neighbour string in the array head as well as in the end will be reorganised. Now this reorganised string will again perform the characteristic string matching and if any worm is detected then again the warning is sent to all users saying that the worm have found. If it is not matched then it won’t perform any operation. If in a case that the characteristic string is present in the block but is divided into two different data packets, then a special term called â€Å"character array† is introduced. First the matching mechanism is performed in both the data packet. If the matching characteristic string is found then the warning is sent to the users that there is a worm present. But if only part of the characteristic string is found then it will be enough if it meets some of the requirements like the head of the data packet should match wit h the tail of the characteristic string or the tail of the data packet should match with the head of the characteristic string. But if these conditions are not satisfied then no operation is performed. Now, if the tail of the data packet contains the partial characteristic string then the data packet is stored in the array. If the length of the characteristic string is m, then the Array[m] is set as ’’. And if the head of the data packet contains a part of the characteristic string then that data packet is stored in the n consecutive units of array. Finally, this array will be the characteristic string matching and if the worm is detected then the warning is sent to all the users. If it is not matched then nothing is done. 3.2 DETECTING UNKNOWN P2P WORM: In the above section we have seen how the known worm is detected. But that algorithm or mechanism are meant to detect the unknown p2p worms. So here in this section we will understand how the unknown worms can be detected and restrain the network. As we know in p2p networks a node can able to send the information to multiple hosts at a same time. Anyhow same protocol is used by all the nodes in the network[27]. These characteristics of the network helps worm to propagate easily. As we discussed above, only the known worms can be detected by using the characteristic string matching method. Here we will see how the unknown worms can be detected. The unknown worms are detected based on the behaviour of the node. Some of the detection rules are: same content files are transferred to multiple hosts in a very short time. Same protocol is used and the destination port is same. If these rules are satisfies by the source port then it allows the p2p worm to propagate. Now, it is necessary to e xtract the characteristics of worm near the worm propagation nodes. When these characteristics are extracted, they are added to the feature library. This data similarity comparison and extracting the characteristics are done using the LCSeq algorithm. But the LCSeq algorithm based on generalized suffix tree (GST) is the more efficient. The overall idea is that all the suffixes are represented as a tree. And this tree will have some characteristics like: Ø Every node in a tree is a string and root is the empty string Ø Every suffix can be represented as a path from the root. Ø Every substring can be considered as a prefix of a suffix. Ø To achieve the searching public sub sequence, every node should be set the information of its subordinate source string. 3.3 EXPERIMENT: We know that the worm body tries to infect the other nodes in the network by sending the worm to the specific ports of p2p node. So here the author tried to prove the efficiency of his method by performing an experiment. In this experiment he prepared a multiple group worm body and sent it repeatedly at regular intervals of time. Then he captured these packets and extracted their characteristics and compared it with the one that already exist in the feature library. P2p worm is detected separately using different algorithms like BF algorithm, KMP algorithm and suffix-array algorithm and compared their results doing three experiments. In the experiment 1, worm characteristics are in the same packet.. in the experiment Security Issues in Peer-to-peer Networking Security Issues in Peer-to-peer Networking ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The interest in the field of networking, driven me to take the computer networking as my course in M.Sc. there are many different types of networks. Out of them the more popularized and upcoming trend of networks are peer-to-peer networks. This report of my final dissertation for the partial fulfilment of my M.Sc, computer networking, would not have been possible without the support of my supervisor, Mr. Harry Benetatos. He helped me a lot by guiding me and pin-pointing the key mistakes which I have done during my research. My course leader Mr. Nicholas Ioannides also helped me a lot to complete this dissertation. His advises and suggestions gave me a lot of encouragement and support which made me do this research and finish it in time. I am very thankful to my university, LONDON METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY which provided me the free access to the IEEE library which helped me to find the key papers which are very useful for my research. I also thank my parents for their support given to me in all walks of my life. DEDICATION: I dedicate this report to my parents and my well wisher Sakshi for their constant support and encouragement throughout my education and life. CHAPTER 1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT: This dissertation is all about the security issues in the peer-to-peer networks. There are many security issues in peer-to-peer networks. I have chosen to do research on worm intrusions in peer-to-peer networks. In this document I have mentioned how the worm propagates in the network from one peer to another peer, how the worm can be detected and how the detected worm can be attacked and save the network from getting infected. 1.2 AIM: Security issue in Peer-to-peer networks: Securing the peer-to-peer network from worms.   1.3 OBJECTIVES: Ø To understand how the peers communicate with each other in the peer-to-peer network Ø To analyse the propagation of worms in the network. Ø To detect the worms near the nodes of the network Ø To defence the worms in the network. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION: This document briefly discusses about how the worms propagates in the network and how can it be detected and attacked in order to save the peer-to-peer network 1.5 APPROACH: My approach for this dissertation is as follows: Ø Understanding peer-to-peer networks Ø Defining the problem Ø Data collection and analysis Ø Study and understanding the existing solutions for the problem Ø Comparing different solutions Ø conclusion 1.6 METHODOLOGY: This section of my document contains what important steps to be followed in order to achieve the mentioned objectives. It also helps to schedule how to develop and complete different parts of the dissertation. In this dissertation firstly I will study and understand about the peer-to-peer networks and how the peers in the networks communicate and share information with the remaining peer in the network. Then I do research on how the worm propagates in the network, how can the worm be detected and how the detected worm can be attacked and restore the network.   In the pictorial form the different stages of my dissertation are 1.7 PREVIEW ABOUT THE COMING CHAPTERS IN THE REPORT: The rest of the report is organised as follows: in the chapter 2, there is brief discussion about the peer-to-peer networks, different types of peer-to-peer networks, advantages and disadvantages of the peer-to-peer networks. There is also some information about the worms, its nature and different types of worms. In chapter 3, there is a discussion about the methods given by the different person to detect the worm in the network by the method of matching the characteristic string of the worm. In section 4, there is a solution for this issue. That is mathematical method of detecting the worm in the network and defending it. Chapter 5 consists of a critical appraisal and suggestions for the further work. Finally, I concluded in chapter 6. CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE GENERIC AREA AND IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM: 2.1 NETWORK: Network is a group of electronic devices which are connected to each other in order to communicate which each other.   The devices can be computers, laptops, printers etc. networks can be wired or wireless. Wired networks are networks in which the devices are connected with the help of wires. Wireless networks are the networks in which the devices are connected without the wires. There are many different types of networks and peer-to-peer is one of the important and special types of networks. 2.2 PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: Peer-to-peer networks are emerged in 1990 because of the development of the peer-to-peer file sharing like Napster [1].   Peer-to-peer networks abbreviated as p2p networks are the networks in which all the nodes or peers in the network acts as servers as well as clients on demand. This is unlike typical client server model, in which the clients requests the services and server supplies the resources. But in case of peer-to-peer networks every node in the networks requests services like a client and every node will supply the resources like server on demand. Peer-to-peer network doesn’t need any centralized server coordination.   Peer-to-peer network is scalable. Addition of new nodes to the network or removal of already existing nodes on the network doesn’t affect the network. That means addition or removal of nodes can be done dynamically. All the nodes connected in a peer-to-peer network run on the same network protocol and software. Resources available on a node in the network are available to the remaining nodes of the network and they can access this information easily. Peer-to-peer networks provide robustness and scalability. All the wired and wireless networks can be configured as peer-to-peer networks. Home networks and small enterprise networks are preferable to configure in a peer-to-peer networks. Most the networks are not pure peer-to-peer networks because of they use some network interface devices. In the beginning, the information is stored at all the nodes by making a copy of it. But this increases the flow of traffic in the network. But now, a centralised system is maintained by the network and the requests are directed to the nodes which contains the relevant information. This will save the time and the traffic flow in the network. 2.3 WIRELESS NETWORKS: Devices connected to each other without any wires can also be configured like peer-to-peer networks. In a case of small of number of devices it is preferable to configure the network in wireless peer-to-peer networks because it will be easy to share the data in both the directions. It is even cheaper to connect the networks in wireless peer-to-peer because we do not need to spend on the wires. Peer-to-peer networks are divided into three types. They are: Instant messaging networks Collaborative networks Affinity community networks[2] Instant messaging networks: In this type of peer-to-peer networks, the users can chat with each other in real time by installing some software such as MSN messenger, AOL instant messenger etc. Collaborative networks: This type of peer-to-peer networks are also called as distributed computing.   This is widely used in the field of science and biotechnology where the intense computer processing is needed. Affinity community peer-to-peer networks: It is a type of p2p network, where the group of devices are connected only for the purpose of sharing the data among them. Peer to peer networks are basically classified into two types. They are: Ø Structured peer-to-peer networks Ø Unstructured peer-to-peer networks 2.4 STRUCTURED PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: In the structured peer-to-peer nodes connected in the network are fixed. They use distributed hashing table (DHT) for indexing [4]. In DHT data is stored in the form of hash table like (key, value). Any node willing to retrieve the data can easily do that using the keys. The mapping of values to the keys are maintained by all the nodes present in the network such that there will be very less disruption in case of change in the set of participants DHT-based networks are very efficient in retrieving the resources. 2.5 UNSTRUCTURED PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS: In unstructured p2p network nodes are established arbitrarily. There are three types of unstructured p2p networks. They are Pure peer-to-peer Hybrid peer-to-peer Centralized peer-to-peer In Pure p2p networks all the nodes in the network are equal. There won’t be any preferred node with special infrastructure function. In hybrid p2p networks there will be a special node called â€Å"supernodes† [3] . This supernode can be any node in the network depending on the momentary need of the network. Centralized p2p network is a type of hybrid network in which there will be one central system which manages the network. The network cannot be able to work without this centralized system Basically, all the nodes in the peer-to-peer networks contain the information of the neighbour in its routing table. The rate of propagation of worms in the peer-to-peer networks is larger than compared to the other networks. This is because the information of the neighbour peers can easily achieved from the routing table of the infected node. Different types of files are shared between the nodes in the peer-to-peer networks. These files can be the audio files, video files, music files, text documents, books; articles etc. there are a lot of peer-to-peer software available these days in the market for sharing the files. Some of them are bittorrent, limeware, shareaza, kazaa, Imesh, bearshare Lite, eMule, KCeasy, Ares Galaxy, Soulseek, WinMX, Piolet, Gnutella, Overnet, Azureus (vuze), FrostWire, uTorrent, Morpheus, Ants, Acquisition[5]. There are lot more file sharing softwares in the market but these are the top 20 file sharing softwares for peer-to-peer networks. Basically, all the nodes connected together in the network should configure with the same network protocol and the same software should be installed in all the nodes in order to communicate with each other. Else the nodes in the network cannot communicate if they are configured with the different software or protocol. 2.6 ADVANTAGES OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS [6]: It is more useful for the small business network comprising of very small number of computer systems or devices. Computers in this network can be configured easily. Full time network administrator is not required for the p2p networks. Easy maintenance of the network. Only a single operating system and less number of cables needed to get connected Can be installed easily Users can control the shared resources Distributed nature of the network increases the robustness of the network. 2.7 DISADVANTAGES OF THE PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS [12]: No centralised administration Back-up should be performed on the each computer individually. Peer-to-peer networks are not secure Every computer in the network behaves as server and client which can slow down the performance of the system Legal controversy with the copyrights. 2.8 WORM: Worm is a computer malware program or it can be called as a mischievous code which can multiple itself   into several replicas or it duplicate itself into several copies. Worm in simple can be called as â€Å"autonomous intrusion agent† [19] .It doesn’t actually alters the function of the system but it pass through i.e., worm is unlike virus.   It intrudes the network without the mediation of the user. This is first detected by Robert T Morris in 1988[18]. Today we have some billions of systems connected to internet. Bu during 1988 there were only 60,000 systems connected to the internet. During that period 10% of the internet systems i.e., 6000 of the systems are infected and almost clogged because of the worms [8]. Worms when enters the system it hides in the operating system where it cannot be noticeable [18] . It drastically slows down the system the effect the other programs in the system. In worst cases it could even effect the entire network and slow down the internet across whole world. As it is said earlier that it replicates itself into multiple copies and attach itself to the emails and corrupt them and sometimes deleting the file without the user interaction. If it enters our email, it can able to send itself to all the contacts in our email book and then to all the contacts of the emails of our email book and likewise it propagates, grow and spread at the higher rate. Worms will even create the â€Å"backdoor† into the computer [11]. This will make the attackers to send spam easily. Some famous worms discovered in 2003 and 2004 are â€Å"Mydoom†, â€Å" Sobig† and â€Å"Sasser†[7].   â€Å"Sasser† worm has recently affected the computers which are using Windows 2000 or Windows XP operating system. It restarts the system automatically and crashes it. It is spread to all the nodes in the network. There are some worms which are unlike the normal worms. These worms are very useful to the user some times. Hence, these are called the â€Å"helpful worms† [9]. Sometimes they help users without the interaction with the user. But most of the known worms are harmful and will always tries to infect the nodes in the network and affect the performance of the network. When the peer-to-peer networks are attacked by the worms, it slows down the efficiency of the network. So there is a need to save the networks from entering into the network and spreading itself all over the network. The worms should be detected and defended. If we delay in defending these worms, they replicate itself and makes many copies of itself and spread all through the network. This is very dangerous to the network as it affects the performance and efficiency of the network [10]. CHAPTER 3 RELEVANT WORK DONE BY OTHERS IN ORDER TO SOLVE THE PROBLEM: Many people proposed solutions to this problem. First Zhou L gave solution to p2p worm and he observed that propagation of worm in p2p network is very speed when compared to other networks[13] . Jayanthkumar performed some simulations on worm propagation from infected node to other node[10]. Wei yu researched on the behaviour of worms in p2p networks[14]. In my research I found one more interesting method of detecting the worms in the peer-to-peer network. This is indeed a special method of detecting the worms in network because the authors Yu Yao, Yong Li, Fu-xiang Gao, Ge Yu in their paper titled â€Å"A Signature-behaviour-based P2P worm detection approach† they proposed a mechanism of detecting the known worms in the peer-to-peer networks based on characteristic string matching. Worm make use of vulnerabilities in the network and +Spreads[15]. They also proposed the detection mechanism for the unknown worms based on their behaviour. They technique mainly consists of the te chnology of characteristic string matching, identifying the application and the unknown worm detection technology. They have given the algorithm for the matching the characteristics string of the worm called suffix-tree algorithm- suffix array algorithm. This is efficient and simple with very less time complexity. As peer-to-peer network follows fragment transfer technique there is chance of assigning the characteristics string of the worm to the other blocks of data. And again during the reorganisation process this characteristic string can identify the worm. These authors even validated their results by simulation. They proved that their method is also one of the efficient methods of p2p worm detection. As mentioned above this method detects the known worm and also the unknown worms based on characteristic string matching and their behaviour respectively. In this method they initially capture the network packets using the library function called â€Å"LibPcap†. â€Å"LibPcap† is the library function that captures the network packets in UNIX and Linux platforms. This function contains many functions that will be useful for capturing the network packets. After capturing the data packets with help of these functions the non-P2P packets are filtered out. So now the P2P packets are filtered. In these P2P packets the known worms are detected by using the characteristic string matching. This is implemented by the couple of algorithms. They are the â€Å"suffix array algorithm† and the â€Å"dichotomy algorithm†. These algorithms are very accurate and are capable of detecting the worms in very less time. As I mentioned above peer-to-peer networks follow fragment transfer mechanism. Hence the characteristic string of the worm can be assigned to the other blocks of data. So, in this situation it is difficult to detect the worm if the characteristic string of the worm is based on the single packet. But if the characteristic string is present in the block then there is a chance of detecting the worm because it will assign it to the two packets. At this time the worm characteristic string present in the two different data packets need to restructure. After restructuring, the worm can be detected by using the matching mechanism. In this way the known worm in the network is detected by using the characteristic string matching. The unknown worms in the p2p network can be detected with the help of the act characteristics of the worm at the initial stage of its propagation. This can be called as the behaviour based detection of the unknown p2p worms. Like this all the known and unknown worms in the network are detected. 3.1 P2P KNOWN WORM DETECTION: There are four steps in detecting the p2p known worms. They are: Deal flow Technology of identifying the application Characteristic string matching Reorganising the characteristic string 3.1.1 DEAL FLOW: In this step of deal flow the flow of data is divided into four steps[16]. Step 1: Extracting the p2p data stream from the original data stream. Step 2: check the extracted p2p data stream for worms using characteristic string matching with the worms already existing in the library function. Step 3: data is flow is reorganised. It now contains worm characteristic string as well. Go to step 2. Step 4: check the data flow for unknown worms using unknown worm detection techniques. After performing the four steps update the library function. All the four steps is represented   pictorially as in the next page. Figure 4: flow chart representing four steps to detect worms   yes    normal  Ã‚  Normal no  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Abnormal abnormal 3.1.2 TECHNOLOGY OF IDENTIFYING THE APPLICATION: As said earlier, this paper uses the method of capturing the data packets and sca it for the worms which are known with the help of a function library called â€Å"LibPcap†[17] . For this there should be already some assigned rules in the network interface devices. So assigning these rules to those devices is done in stepwise procedure as: Identify the available network interface devices Open the network interface device Compile the rules that we are willing to attach to the devices Setup the rules of filtering to the device Now operate the equipment Start the process of capturing the packets There are some rules for identifying the p2p application. They are: Characteristic information of the known p2p is used Sometimes, if source-destination IP pairs don’t use the known P2P and they may use TCP and UDP at same time, then they are p2p. At a particular time source pairs {srcIP, srcport}[27] and the destination pairs {dstIP, dstport}[27] are checked Here we can identify whether it’s a p2p or not. If the number of connection port is equal to the number of connection IP, then we can say that it is a p2p. There are the situations where these rules have been used unruly. So the there were some amendments made to these rules. The amendments are rule (2) can identify even the mazes which are present and rule (3) is modified in such a way that in the detect cycle {srcIP, srcport}[27] pairs at the source and the {dstIP,   dstport }[27] pairs at the destination are checked. From this they derived that if the number of connection port is equal to the number of connection IP, the protocols which are used are same. If they are different then the protocols are different. 3.1.3 CHARACTERISTIC STRING MATCHING: This is the most important section of the paper. Here authors have given some definitions to the terms which we are going to use, the algorithms which we are going to use to detect the worm. Couple of algorithms are mentioned. They are suffix-array algorithm and the dichotomy algorithm. So the entire process of detecting the worm depends on the efficiency and the accuracy of these algorithms. First of all before using and understanding suffix-array algorithm we will try to understand some keywords and rules. Suffix: suffix is the part of a string or a substring which starts at a particular location to the end of the string. If a suffix in the string S starts at the location ‘i’ to the end of the string S, then the suffix can be represented as Suffix(i)=S[i,Len(S) ][27] . Let us understand how the strings can be compared. The comparison in this paper followed â€Å"dictionary comparison† If u and v are the two different strings. Comparing the strings u and v is same like comparing u[i] and v[i], where ‘i’ starts with the value 1. Ø Here string u is equal to string v i.e., u=v when u[i]=v[i] Ø String u is greater then string v i.e., u>v when u[i]>v[i] Ø String u is less than string v i.e., u But the results were still not obtained for i>len(u) or i>len(v) Also if len(u)>len(v) then u >v, if len(u) Suffix-array: suffix-array is denoted by SA. It is a one-dimensional array. It is an array of SA[1], S[2], SA[3],†¦. And so on. Here s[i] Rank-array: rank-array is nothing but SA-1. If SA[i]=j, then Rank[j]=i. we can say that the rank[i] saves the rank of Suffix(i) in an ascending order for all the suffixes. In this paper the author has taken the example of string â€Å"science† and explained everything clearly. The string â€Å"science† can generate seven suffixes. They are: Suffix(1): science Suffix(2): cience Suffix(3): ience Suffix(4): ence Suffix(5): nce Suffix(6): ce Suffix(7): e When we sort out everything in a dictionary order it will be in the order as follow Suffix(6)= ce Suffix(2)= cience Suffix(7)= e Suffix(4)= ence Suffix(3)= ience Suffix(5)= nce Suffix(1)= science Suffix-array algorithm follows multiplier ideas. Firstly get SA1 and Rank1 by comparing every character in the string. Comparing string is similar to comparing the every character sequentially. So by comparing every character, SA1 and Rank1 can derive SA2 and Rank2. And this SA2 and Rank2 will derive SA4 and Rank4. And this will again derive SA8 and Rank8. So finally suffix-array and rank-array are derived from this process. The main process of the suffix-array algorithm is Ø Calculating SA1 and Rank1. Firstly all the suffixes are arranged in the first letter order and then suffix-array (SA1) is generated by using quick sorry algorithm and then Rank1 is also generated. Ø Comparing 2k-prefix Suffix(i) and Suffix(j) using SAk and Rankk. 2k-Suffix(i) = 2k-Suffixes(j), this is equivalent to Rankk[SAk[i]] = Rankk[SAk[j]] and Rankk[SAk[i+k]] = Rankk[SAk[j+k]] 2k-Suffix(i) Suffix-array algorithm is a sorting algorithm which sorts out the characteristic string. So, this uses binary search algorithm. The algorithm follows Step 1: in the first step values are assigned like left=1, right=n and max_match=0 Step 2: the middle value i.e., mid= (left +right)/2. Step 3: comparing the characters corresponding to Suffix (SA[mid]) and P. the longest public prefix r can be helpful in implantation and comparison. If r > max_match, then max_match=r. Step 4: if Suffix(SA[mid])   If Suffix(SA[mid])>P, then right=mid-1   If Suffix(SA[mid])=P, then go to step 6 Step 5: if left Step 6: if max_match= m, then print â€Å"match is successful†. 3.1.4 REORGANISING THE CHARACTERISTIC STRING: In this step the characteristic string is reorganised. If the character string is divided into two different data blocks, then the data block with the partial characteristic string is stored. Basically, all the information about the data block like index, beginning offset, length of the block and so on are contained at the head of the each block. Here a structure piece is defined which consists of index of the block, beginning offset of the block offset, length of the character array head and the length of the character array end[18]. Initially each and every data packet is compared with the characteristic string for matching. If it is matched then the warning or an alert is sent to all the users about the worm. Here if the tail of the characteristic string of the worm matches with the head of the data block, then it will be stored in the character array end. And if the head of the characteristic string of the worm matches with the tail of the data block then it is stored in the corr esponding character array head. Suppose if the neighbouring data block contains a partial characteristic string of the worm then the neighbour string in the array head as well as in the end will be reorganised. Now this reorganised string will again perform the characteristic string matching and if any worm is detected then again the warning is sent to all users saying that the worm have found. If it is not matched then it won’t perform any operation. If in a case that the characteristic string is present in the block but is divided into two different data packets, then a special term called â€Å"character array† is introduced. First the matching mechanism is performed in both the data packet. If the matching characteristic string is found then the warning is sent to the users that there is a worm present. But if only part of the characteristic string is found then it will be enough if it meets some of the requirements like the head of the data packet should match wit h the tail of the characteristic string or the tail of the data packet should match with the head of the characteristic string. But if these conditions are not satisfied then no operation is performed. Now, if the tail of the data packet contains the partial characteristic string then the data packet is stored in the array. If the length of the characteristic string is m, then the Array[m] is set as ’’. And if the head of the data packet contains a part of the characteristic string then that data packet is stored in the n consecutive units of array. Finally, this array will be the characteristic string matching and if the worm is detected then the warning is sent to all the users. If it is not matched then nothing is done. 3.2 DETECTING UNKNOWN P2P WORM: In the above section we have seen how the known worm is detected. But that algorithm or mechanism are meant to detect the unknown p2p worms. So here in this section we will understand how the unknown worms can be detected and restrain the network. As we know in p2p networks a node can able to send the information to multiple hosts at a same time. Anyhow same protocol is used by all the nodes in the network[27]. These characteristics of the network helps worm to propagate easily. As we discussed above, only the known worms can be detected by using the characteristic string matching method. Here we will see how the unknown worms can be detected. The unknown worms are detected based on the behaviour of the node. Some of the detection rules are: same content files are transferred to multiple hosts in a very short time. Same protocol is used and the destination port is same. If these rules are satisfies by the source port then it allows the p2p worm to propagate. Now, it is necessary to e xtract the characteristics of worm near the worm propagation nodes. When these characteristics are extracted, they are added to the feature library. This data similarity comparison and extracting the characteristics are done using the LCSeq algorithm. But the LCSeq algorithm based on generalized suffix tree (GST) is the more efficient. The overall idea is that all the suffixes are represented as a tree. And this tree will have some characteristics like: Ø Every node in a tree is a string and root is the empty string Ø Every suffix can be represented as a path from the root. Ø Every substring can be considered as a prefix of a suffix. Ø To achieve the searching public sub sequence, every node should be set the information of its subordinate source string. 3.3 EXPERIMENT: We know that the worm body tries to infect the other nodes in the network by sending the worm to the specific ports of p2p node. So here the author tried to prove the efficiency of his method by performing an experiment. In this experiment he prepared a multiple group worm body and sent it repeatedly at regular intervals of time. Then he captured these packets and extracted their characteristics and compared it with the one that already exist in the feature library. P2p worm is detected separately using different algorithms like BF algorithm, KMP algorithm and suffix-array algorithm and compared their results doing three experiments. In the experiment 1, worm characteristics are in the same packet.. in the experiment

Feds Transition from Monetary to Interest Rate Targets Essay -- essays

Feds Transition from Monetary to Interest Rate Targets The Fed’s Transition from Monetary Targets to Interest Rate Targets Introduction The Federal Reserve appeared to be taking on a completely different stance in 1994 versus 1993. During 1993 there were no changes in the policy directives of the Federal Open Market Committee and short-term interest rates remained steady. In contrast, during 1994, the FOMC announced six different policy changes while at the same time making an adjustment to the short-term interest rate. This change in policy was due to two factors. First, the economic environment had changed. The Fed’s monetary policy during 1993 was accommodative to permit the recovery of the economy from a recession, while the policy became more restrictive in 1994 as the economy appeared to be recovering and possibly heating up. Another cause of this apparent shift was growing consensus that price stability should be the ultimate long-term goal of the Federal Reserve. Also, the Fed adjusted its intermediate targeting strategy, placing more emphasis on interest rate targets over monetary aggregate targets . Monetary Goals To understand why the Fed changed its targets and goals the way it did, we should first examine the process the Fed uses to determine and pursue its stated goals. There are six monetary policy goals that are desired in an efficient economy. These are; 1) price stability, 2) high employment, 3) economic growth, 4) financial market and institution stability, 5) interest rate stability, and 6) foreign-exchange market stability. There has been in the past, and continues to be, some concern that these goals may be in conflict with one another. This concern, although valid for some circumstances, has been given more attention than it warrants. In particular, there has been an historic belief that there is a tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. Low inflation was expected to come at the cost of high unemployment and vice versa. The experiences of the 1970’s in the United States showed us that this is not necessarily true, as we experienced periods of simultaneously high in flation and high unemployment. The tradeoff that we expect is actually a short-term one, and as Alan Greenspan noted, in the long run â€Å"lower levels of inflation are conducive to the achievement of greater productivity and efficiency and, therefore,... ... 5 goals. Second, an increasing use of interest rate targets meant that they were using targets that were more indicative of the effectiveness of its policy tools and the need for further action. Continuing to track monetary aggregates may not have revealed the need to take action. Third, the economy had been heating up and some action to slow the growth was simply needed at this time. The change in the Fed’s policy actions from 1993 to 1994 is not as drastic as it may first appear. It is merely a continuing evolution of the manner in which the Fed executes the strategy and tactics of its monetary policy. The effectiveness of this modification of its policy is borne out by the lack of any visible sign of inflation at the end of 1994. Additional time will provide the necessary information to determine if this policy stance is still effective in the future and adjustments will undoubtedly have to be made. Bibliography: References â€Å"The FOMC in 1993 and 1994: Monetary Policy in Transition.† Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, March,1995 â€Å"Flying Swine: Appropriate Targets and Goals of Monetary Policy† Journal of Economic Issues, June, 1996

Rh Bill & Malthusian Theory Essay

In 2011, we have now seven billion people living in this planet. Unfortunately, Earth’s estimated carrying capacity is only about eleven to twelve billion people. With such a big problem we are facing today, it is important to analyze and examine what the scholars of the past have to say of our increasing population. One of the famous population theorists of that time is Thomas Malthus. In 1798, Malthus proposes his own theory about population. According to him, human populations grow exponentially while food production grows at an arithmetic rate. Thus, if the increase in our population is not controlled properly, then the number of the people would increase faster than the food supply. He stated that if this growth rate is allowed to continue, it would lead to a food shortage. To solve this problem, he proposed three solutions. The first one is positive check. This method increases death rates due to wars, famines, disease, and natural disasters. Preventive or negative check is the other one. It lowers the birth rate which is accomplished through abortion, birth control, and celibacy. The last one is moral restraint which is refraining from marriage until the time when a person is capable of supporting a family. This two hundred-year-old theory is now happening these days. It predicted the problems of food shortage that the world is experiencing today because of the uncontrolled increase in population. Still, I cannot fully agree with Malthus because there are things that he forgot to take into consideration when he formulated this theory. One is the ability of man to increase the food production as stated by Marx. He failed to recognize man’s ability to use science and technology to solve these population problems like the possible developments in agricultural technology which can increases the supply of food. Maybe during that time, science is making a slow progress that he assume we cannot remedy these problems. Another one is the use of birth control as a way of reducing population. He believed that having only few kids is the only way to stop or control the increasing growth rate. Moreover, he confused the desire for sexual relationships with the desire to have children. He didn’t realize that a person can still engage in a sexual relationship and still don’t have a child with the help of contraceptives. Although Malthus’ theory has some loopholes, the essentials of the theory have not yet been demolished. There are some assumptions that turned out to be true. RH bill The reproductive health bill which is now a law is the most controversial bill in the Philippines for decades which date back to 1967. The bill is composed of topics which deal with issues about family planning, maternal and child health, and reproductive and sexual conditions. Its main objective is to lift the reproductive standards of Filipinos by promoting respect for life, informed choice, birth spacing and responsible parenthood which is accordance with the human rights standards. It also guarantees access to medically-safe, legal and quality reproductive health care services and relevant information. Although it has promising merits, I do not support the bill because of some of its faulty assumptions. One is the assumption that overpopulation is the cause of poverty. In truth, there is really no relationship between overpopulation and poverty but RH bill still insists that it is the cause of the worsening poverty in our country. It is true that it is one of the factors but it is never the root cause of poverty. What is the primary cause of poverty are the corruption and the bad governance of the administration. In fact, we are one of the most corrupt countries in Southeast Asia. Another assumption is that Philippines is overpopulated. In reality, there is no overpopulation in our country. It is true that our cities are densely populated but in some parts of our country, there are small numbers of people and some are still uninhabited. One more problem in the bill is the belief that contraceptives will prevent abortion and sexually transmitted diseases. We should not entrust our safety to the use of these contraceptives in the prevention of STDs because according to some studies, there is no proof that condoms, for example, is effective in preventing STDs. In the case of abortions, it did not really lessen the incidents. According to a study in Spain, a 10-year period of an increasing use of contraceptive devises had been paralleled by a significantly increasing number of abortions. Though it is already a law, I hope that it can still be corrected so that it can truly uplift the standards of living of the Filipino people and be the solution to lessen the country’s underemployment and booming population.

Historical Biography of Archimedes

The presented text is a summary biography of Archimedes of Syracuse. Known as one of the greatest mathematician, scientist, and inventor; Archimedes’ notoriety has been maintained over centuries by the scientific discoveries and technological inventions he brought during his lifetime. This text relates of his many accomplishments in a semi-chronological order, in attempting to retrace the marking facts of Archimedes’ life. Archimedes was born in 287BC in Syracuse, Sicily. He was the son of astronomer Phidias (Crystalinks, 2008). Presently, there is no information specifying of the work accomplished by Phidias.Similarly, there is little detailed information concerning Archimedes life as a child and adolescent. According to history, Heracliedes wrote a biography of Archimedes which is subjected to have had detailed information about various aspects of Archimedes private life. Unfortunately, the biography was destroyed and many aspects of Archimedes personal were lost in t he process. It seems that the span of the years has erased the memories of his childhood upbringing. In fact so little is known of his personal life, that there exists no specifics on his coupled life. Whether he had a wife and children remains unknown to the present day.In comparison, his professional adult life has been studied and retraced century after century, relating of his incredible prowess with Mathematics, and of its unusual genius for technological inventions; some of which are still being used today, two millennia after his death. Historical texts mention his relation to King Hiero II, then the King of Syracuse and presumed uncle of Archimedes (Crystalinks, 2008). The validity of this relation to the Royal Family of Syracuse comes again and again in writings concerning Archimedes, and the few elements of his young adult life seem to confirm his privileged ranking in Syracusian society.In fact, Archimedes was schooled in Alexandria, Egypt where he traveled to as a teenag er to study mathematics (University of St Andrews, 1999). The many counts of his spectacular professional life as a mathematician, scientist, and inventor seem to retrace an origin to that period of his life. Certainly the ability to pursue university study confirms of his family ties to the Aristocratic society of Syracuse. He would later in his life collaborate closely with King Hiero II to come up with inventions to prevent Roman invasion of Syracuse.Some of those inventions of warfare are reviewed in further detail in the portion of this text dedicated to Archimedes technological inventions and innovations. Archimedes began study in Alexandria at the age of 18. He was then brought to study mathematics along with Conon of Samos, and Eratosthenes (Crystalinks, 2008). As a scholar in Alexandria, he was allowed to study both the theoretical and practical aspects of science and technology, that he often retransmitted back to Greece via letters of correspondence he wrote. It is believ ed that Archimedes spent five to six years in Alexandria at study.There are no other accounts during the life of Archimedes where he would have spent a comparable amount of time being educated in the formal sense. Following his study, he returned to Syracuse to become one of the most prolific scientist and inventors known to mankind. History tells that Archimedes invented the Archimedes screw while at study in Alexandria. The famous screw used to carry water from a low lying position to a higher position would found many useful applications and is presently used in modern day sewage plants. An amazing feat indeed.His ingenuity continued after he returned home to Syracuse, and was fueled by the desire to find adequate solutions in order to protect the city from Roman invasion. In fact, often under the demand of the King, he undertook and completed several inventions targeted at warfare. For so doing, he used mechanisms of destruction and others of dissuasion that proved efficient as they held the roman invader, General Marcus Claudius Marcellus, from entering the city of Syracuse for two consecutive years. Archimedes died in 212BC, while Syracuse was under siege by the Roman invaders.The story tells that he was killed by a roman soldier during the attack of Syracuse (Crystalinks, 2008). His mathematical Genius Archimedes of Syracuse is particularly known the world over for his stunning ability with mathematics, and in particular with geometry. In this section of the biography, we are to retrace the most important theorems he came up with, and relate of his most impressive scientific discoveries. On the contrary to most mathematicians, Archimedes mathematical inspirations often came from his work on Mechanics, thereby suggesting of an influence he brought to mathematics by making hypothesis based in the practical world.This is a very interesting practice which is peculiar and certainly differentiates his work from other mathematicians who mostly would come up wi th a mathematical theorem and then attempt to verify it in the physical world. Archimedes wrote extensively on his work, although most of his work vanished over the years. In particular, he wrote a treatise on mechanics and hydrostatics entitled the â€Å"Method Concerning Mechanical Theorems†, which according to history often inspired his work as a mathematician. As he seemed to find his inspiration in the physical mechanical world, Archimedes excelled in the field of Geometry.One of his famous discoveries was in relation to the comparable volume of a sphere and that of a cylinder. Archimedes was able to prove that the volume of a sphere equaled two-thirds of the volume of a cylinder for which the height equaled the diameter of the sphere (University of St Andrews, 1999). Archimedes was so proud for having found that mathematical reality that he insisted on having it carve on his tomb. Although Archimedes is often thought of as more of an inventor than a mathematician, he pa rticipated in several key developments in mathematics.Archimedes often made use of infinitesimal sums to arrive at proving his hypotheses (Crystalinks, 2008). The method is often compared to modern day integral calculus which is very similar to the methods he employed then. One of his famous mathematical proofs was the approximation of Pi. Archimedes often used his ingenious notion of the mechanical world to arrive at more conclusive mathematical realities. In order to estimate the value of pi more accurately, he designed a circle. He placed a polygon on the outside and on the inside of the circle (University of Utah, 1999).As he would raise the number of sides of each polygon, he came closer and closer to having a circle; effectively made of a series of small and connecting distances. As he reached 96 sides for the inner and outer polygons, he measured them to obtain a higher and lower boundary limit of the approximation of Pi. Archimedes concluded from the experiment that the valu e of pi was contained between 3+1/7 and 3+10/71 (Crystalinks, 2008). A remarkable feat leading to an impressive conclusion, which we consider today one of the most important proofs of mathematics.The formula for the area of a circle is also attributed to Archimedes who came up with the fact that the area was equal to the square root of the radius of the circle multiplied by Pi. His interest for arriving at mathematical truths based on geometrical realities as we can perceived them in a multi-dimensional system, led him to prove more theorems often relating to infinite series or infinite sums. Archimedes is known for determining the equivalency of certain rational numbers by determining their infinite sum.A rational number differentiates itself from a whole number (an integer for instance), as it has an integer portion and a decimal portion. The infinite sum approximation is often used in mathematics today to estimate areas and volumes in two dimensional and three dimensional spaces primarily. The technique he employed in his infinitesimal related theorems are commonly called method of exhaustion in modern day mathematics (University of St Andrews, 1999). As impressive as his ability for arriving at mathematical reality was, it made even more physical sense when he applied it to the physical world in which we live.Many of Archimedes theories relating to physics are closely relating to the fields of geometry and physics in general. Often the geometrical mystique of an object would eventually lead to a physical mathematical reality of our world. It is seemingly in such proceeding that Archimedes came up with several theorems of mechanical nature. In fact, Archimedes discovered several theorems on the center of gravity of planes, and solids, and on the mathematical tools and methods to approximate those.It is interesting to mention that his work, whether in theory or practice was often commanded by the search of the infinite in the mundane reality of the finite. A rchimedes is known to have worked on the mathematical theories of spirals, where he helped to determine the mathematical formulation to describe spirals based on polar geometry. The work was compiled in a treatise called the Archimedean Spiral. The treatise describes in mathematical terms the function of a point moving away from a fixed coordinate at a constant speed and with constant angular velocity.The function described in the treatise corresponds to the geographical representation of a spiral, which in the treatise is the result of moving set of points in a given pattern, that of a spiral (University of St Andrews, 1999). Several of his written theoretical work came as correspondence letters, in particular to a person of the name of Dositheus, who was a student of Conon (Crystalinks, 2008). In some of his letters, Archimedes referred to the calculation of the area enclosed in a parabola and determined by a line secant to the parabolic curve.In the letters to Dositheus, Archimed es was able to prove that such area would equal to four thirds the area of an isosceles triangle having for base and height the magnitude of the intersecting line in the parabola. He arrived at the result using an infinite summation of the rational number one fourth. This particular mathematical demonstration would later prove invaluable in calculating the areas and volumes of various objects in using integral calculus, a modern form of Archimedes infinite expansion.One of his most famous scientific discoveries relates to the buoyancy effect of a liquid on a given object: often referred to as Archimedes’ principle. The principle explains that any body immersed in a fluid experiences a force of buoyancy which is equal to the magnitude of the equivalent gravitational force of the liquid displaced during immersion. In other words, Archimedes arrived at the reality that any object plunged in a liquid plentiful enough to maintain such object in equilibrium, would experiment a forc e in reality equal to the body of water displaced to maintain such equilibrium.There is a famous anecdote on how Archimedes came up with the physical theorem. Legend has it that it was during a bath that he came up with the concept for the buoyancy theorem. According to history, he came up with the answer to the buoyancy theorem in wanting to help his uncle, King Hiero II, to solve the Golden Crown Mystery. In fact, the story relates that the King, Hiero II, sent a certain amount of gold to his goldsmith to be made into a crown. When the crown returned from the goldsmith, the King apparently noticed that it was lighter than the presumed amount of gold that was given to the goldsmith.King Hiero II presented the dilemma to his nephew Archimedes of Syracuse, who supposedly came up with an answer to the problem that very night. The legend states that Archimedes came up with the buoyancy theorem by filling his bathtub to the top. When he entered the bath, a certain amount of water poured out of the bath. He later on realized that the mass of the amount of water dispersed from the bathtub was equivalent to the mass of his own body. From arriving at this discovery, the story claims that Archimedes ran the streets of Syracuse naked and screaming â€Å"Eureka†, which means â€Å"I have found it†.The next day he reiterated the experiment with the Golden Crown and the same amount of gold that was initially given to the goldsmith, when he was able to confirm King Hiero’s assumption that not all the gold given to the goldsmith was used in making the Golden Crown (Andrews University, 1998). This amazingly simple proof carries one of the most important theoretical truths of physics. The principle of buoyancy is better known today as the Law of Hydrostatics, and is directly attributed to Archimedes of Syracuse.The above anecdote is a classic example of Archimedes’ability to confront complex theoretical problems by transcribing them into practical l ife. A considerable number of his experiments and scientific theorems were similarly found through empirical and methodical practical proceedings. Archimedes Inventions As a keen mathematician, Archimedes was particularly talented in determining physical solutions to various problems encountered in his life. Often, the mechanical tools that he devised were a direct projection of a theorem he wanted to prove or vice versa. One of his most famous inventions was the Archimedes screw.Sometimes referred to as Archimedes water pump, the device was created by the Greek mathematician during his study in Alexandria. Archimedes screw is a machine made to pump water from a lower level to a higher level. In short, an ingenious method for carrying water over distances thereby apparently defeating the law of gravity. The screw is made of a cylindrical pipe angled at fourty five degrees and containing a helix. When the bottom end of the device is plunged into water and set to rotate, the helixâ₠¬â„¢s rotation carries water from the bottom end of the cylinder to the top end (Crystalinks, 2008).Archimedes according to historians, devised another form of the screw in a comparable yet dissimilar shape. In our day, the system is being used primarily in waste-water treatment plants to pump sewage waters. There is little account however on the applications for which the Archimedes screw may have served during Archimedes life, other than its use for irrigation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, and for removing water in the hull of ships. In fact, most counts of using the technique point to its modern day utilization.Other inventions brought by Archimedes received a considerable amount of attention, and found direct applications during his lifetime. From his close relationship with the King Hiero II, Archimedes was requested to build machines to keep the Roman assailant at bay. Archimedes successfully created several weapons of war that held the Roman invader several years. Archim edes is in fact known for inventing the catapult for that purpose. The catapult is a device based on the principle of the lever, which is capable of carrying an object several times its weight.When the catapult is fired, the object â€Å"flies† in describing a parabolic curve, prior to hitting its target. The catapult was often used during warfare as a defensive method to protect a territory from invaders. He would later on be used as on offensive weapon for attacking protected areas or castles. The catapult can be assimilated as the early form of a canon, which solely relied on mechanical means to operate. The device served Syracuse of Sicily well during the Punic wars of Rome vs. Carthage. Archimedes, at the King’s request, created several weapons to defend the city (Biography Shelf, 2008).Among such weapons were the catapult, the crossbow, and the claw; which could be used to cover several ranges. These various methods of defense allowed Archimedes to keep the Roman assailants at shore for two long years, according to historical reports. Archimedes also came up with the Archimedes ray, a device which was created to set invading ships on fire at a large distance. The device is made up of several mirrors forming a parabolic shape where the rays are reflected to subsequently interfere at a point which can be considered the focus of the parabolic shape.By aligning the mirrors adequately, it was then feasible to set ships on fire by focusing light reflected from the mirrors directly onto the ships. However, not all of Archimedes inventions were meant for warfare. The Greek mathematician and inventor came up with several devices to assist sailors to carry large objects from the water. Most of those devices operated based on the principle of the lever that was also used in the conception of the catapult. Off all of his work both in theory and in practice, only his writing remained to this day.In fact several of his correspondence letters were compile d into a repository of treatise commonly called the Archimedean Palimpsest (Cryslalinks 2008). According to ancient history, a palimpsest is a literal compilation of writings that were transcribed onto parchments and contained several layers of text on a given page. It seems evident to modern day historians and archeologists that the multiple writings on a single page indicated that parchment were expensive and hard to come by, and thus demanded that the author writes several times on the same page in order to conserve the precious parchment.The Archimedean palimpsest was made of the following treatises: 1- On the Equilibrium of Planes The treatise was focused on the principle of the lever and its various applications. The document describes how the principle of the lever can be applied to the calculation of the center of gravity of various bodies including parabola, hemispheres, and triangles. 2- On spirals The treatise â€Å"On Spirals† describes the mathematical function o f point moving in a curvilinear direction in a three dimensional setting. The work is better known under the appellation of the Archimedean Spiral. 3- On the Sphere and the CylinderThe treatise describes the mathematical derivation on the relationship between a given sphere and a cylinder having for height the diameter of the sphere. Archimedes was able to mathematically prove that in that very context, the volume of the sphere equaled two thirds to that of the cylinder. 4- On Conoids and Spheroids In this treatise, Archimedes demonstrates how to calculate the areas and volumes of conical sections, spherical sections, and parabolic sections. 5- On Floating Bodies Probably one of the most famous works of Archimedes, the â€Å"On Floating Bodies† treatise describes the theorem of equilibrium of fluidic materials.In this document, Archimedes proved that a body of water would take a spherical form around a given center of gravity. In the second volume of the treatise, he describe s the equilibrium states of parabolic sections partially immersed in a body of water. 6- The Quadrature of the Parabola This treatise corresponds to the mathematical derivation that the area made by the intersection of a line with a parabola equals four thirds of a triangle having a base and height both equal to the segment of the line intersecting the parabola. 7- StomachionThe treatise describes a problem in which Archimedes attempted to estimate the number of strips of paper of various shapes and quantities that would be necessary to reconstruct a square. The method is said to be an early version of the field of combinatorics. The Archimedean palimpsest was conserved over two millennia, and his now conserved at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, MD. It is the only remaining work directly written by Archimedes himself to be existing today. Unlike the mathematician’s writings which were compiled in the Archimedean palimpsest, there are apparently no remains or originals of his practical inventions.The Archimedean palimpsest is direct testimony of Archimedes’ inclination for mathematical prowess, in particular when it concerned geometry. Most of his work that was conserved in the redaction of the palimpsest describes some very important rules and theorems for Mathematics. Among those, the approximation of pi and the use of the method of exhaustion to estimate areas, volumes, and surface areas of solids of varying forms were key elements leading to modern day mathematical practice.Some of his inventions are in use today, yet his name is most often associated in our era with the buoyancy theorem also known as Archimede’s Principle. References Andrews University, 1998, Biographies of Mathematicians – Archimedes, website available at http://www. andrews. edu/~calkins/math/biograph/bioarch. htm Biography Shelf, 2008, Short Biography of Archimedes, website available at http://www. biographyshelf. com/archimedes_biography. html Crystalin ks, 2008, Archimedes, Biographical Sketch of the Mathematician, available at http://www.crystalinks. com/archimedes. html Trebuchetstore, 2008, Archimedes: A biography, website available at http://www. redstoneprojects. com/trebuchetstore/archimedes_1. html University of St Andrews, 1999, Archimedes of Syracuse, School of Mathematics and Statistics, available at http://www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/~history/Biographies/Archimedes. html University of Utah, 1999, Archimedes and the Computation of Pi, website available at http://www. math. utah. edu/~alfeld/Archimedes/Archimedes. html

Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power Essay Example

Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power Essay Example Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power Essay Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power Essay Essay Topic: A Long Way Gone Girl in Translation Hilarious Medea Metamorphoses Mythologies The Secret Life Of Bees The Tempest A2 English Literature Holiday Homework Assignment: for Mr Majewski: The Tempest by William Shakespeare and Translations by Brian Friel Compare and contrast the ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power. The modern linguist Norman Fairclough said, Language is power, implying that if you want to control a person or people, an event or series of events, or indeed the entire world, and have power over it or them, you must first control language. Controlling language is the key to both the initial act of gaining power, and then maintaining that power. We find examples of this throughout The Tempest and Translations, which share common themes and elements. To tackle a question which requires suggesting how the writers link language and power, it is necessary to look at the plays in just such a thematic way. The first and most obvious area in The Tempest where language is linked with power is the way in which prose and verse is used by different characters to different effect. Most notably, and especially for its irony, Calibans use of verse when Stephano and Trinculo talk in prose reverts the old ideas of rank, whereby people of higher status, (here supposedly the Kings butler and the jester) spoke in verse, and lower classes (the uncivilised Caliban) spoke in prose. Style shift refers to a method of speaking where a person changes their accent or mode of speech depending on whom they are speaking to and how they wish to be perceived by that other person. Consider: STEPHANO Mooncalf, speak once in thy life, if thou beest a good mooncalf. CALIBAN How does thy honour? Let me lick thy shoe. Ill not serve him; he is not valiant. TRINCULO Thou liest, most ignorant monster! I am in case to justle a constable This may well be a statement by Shakespeare that Caliban is not as sa(l)vage as he seems, and indeed, there are other indicators of this in the play, for example, the goodly old man Gonzalos speech in II.1.150-173 echoing de Montaignes essay Of Canibals, especially the Florio translation of 1603. It is probable Shakespeare read this essay, which essentially decries colonialism, and there is a copy of the essay in the British Museum, which appears to have his signature on it. The point of this is that Shakespeare, despite popular opinion that Caliban is the inferior of the trio, gives Caliban power over his superiors through language, and not only that, but power which is clear for any reader to see, sowing the seeds of our suspicions of Stephano and Trinculo the lesser of the three. They are finally confirmed as such in their drunken activities of IV.1, and their ignoring Calibans warnings of: What do you mean To dote thus on luggage? Lett alone, And do the murder first. If he awake, From toe to crown hell fill our skins with pinches, Make us strange stuff. (ll.230-234) As we know, Caliban is proved right, and all three suffer the consequences of their actions in their plot again Prospero. Also in The Tempest, Prospero illustrates his power over Caliban in teaching him how to speak. This once again brings in the idea of colonialism, a theme found in both plays, and one of great significance, because the colonised were often educated or civilised by being taught the colonisers language. We witness this in both plays. In The Tempest, Caliban intelligently recognises the damage being taught Italian has done to him; he says, The red plague rid you | For learning me your language! (I.2.364-5) However, Caliban uses the language he does have as a weapon against Prospero, to hurl insults at him; again, he says You taught me language, and my profit ont | Is, I know how to curse. (I.1.363-4). It is in this way that Caliban tries to regain some power over Prospero through the use of language. In Translations, Manus is the main voice of dissent against the English. In II.1, Manus purposefully talks to Yolland in Irish, when he knows English, in order to exert his authority or a power over him, and illustrate his resistance to the changes which are taking places courtesy of His Majestys government (I.1). Knowing Irish or rather knowing English but not using it is Manus weapon against the English, in the same way that Caliban swearing is his weapon against Prospero. And again, Manus intelligently recognises the damage which is being done to his country and his people through the colonisation, and that soon they will be subjects; but the difference here is that, some 300 years after Shakespeare was writing, Yolland too is able to recognise that Something is being eroded (II.2). Nevertheless, in the time Translations was set (early 1800s), British colonisation and the British Empire were still the pride of the country, as they were beginning to be in Shakespeares day, and were set to remain so for at least another 100 years. It is this that makes Shakespeares quiet, almost hidden voice of disapproval over colonialism through Caliban and Gonzalo dangerous, especially since The Tempest was shown before James Is court. Manus open voice of disapproval is also dangerous; for the English, it casts suspicion on him and implicates him in a crime at the end of the play in which he had no part. Unlike Shakespeare, and thankfully for Friel first publishing in 1981, the power of his characters disapproval through language could remain overt. Moving on, names are very important both in The Tempest and Translations in order to express power. The name Prospero, for example, comes from the Latin verb prosper meaning, to cause to succeed, while the suffix o is the pronoun I. This is a fitting name and since Prospero is the all-powerful wizard of the play, it is appropriate that his name should translate to I cause to succeed. In fact, not only he succeeds in his goal of regaining his dukedom, but also his daughter and Ferdinand succeed in their goal of marriage. Miranda means admired or to be wondered at, thus, on telling Ferdinand her name, he exclaims Admired Miranda! have connotations for the bearer and degrees of power appropriate to the language of their names. In Translations, names are patronymic, that is, characters are called their first name, then the name of their father, for example Doalty Dan Doaltys middle name is his fathers name, and his last name (the same as his first name) is that of his grandfather. The etymology of the name Manus is thought to be Magnus, meaning big, great, hand; Manus is after all his father Hughs right-hand man. Ironically, Manus is not as big or great as he would like; he consistently wishes to take over his fathers classes and get a better job. In this case then, Manus name is not empowering, but rather, making an ironic statement, much like Calibans name (so we have another comparison between the pair here!). Doalty means, I deny, oppose, refuse and renounce! This is a very powerful name and is suitable to Doaltys character; though his resistance to the English is mainly harmless and passive in the first act, and he does not appear in the second, the third act illustrates just how much knowledge has given Doalty power; his friendship with the Doalty twins implicates him in their illegal activities and makes him, like his name, deny, oppose, refuse and renounce the English. Captain Lanceys name and actions, especially in Act Three, reminds us of the powerful lance, a weapon of war and an instrument of death; while the peaceful and endearing Lieutenant Yolland is a combination of old and land, since he loves Ireland, and Yola, the name of the first wave of English settlers in Ireland, who, appropriately, gradually merged with the Irish, adopting Irish language and customs as Yolland does. Indeed, Yolland, undoubtedly unknowingly, adopts through convergence patterns of speech which fit in more closely with those of Owens, Hughs and Maires, seeking to show solidarity and gain approval in his dealings with these others whom he looks up to. For example, he preserves the Irish place names, and in order to woo Maire speaks the Irish place names which he loves and has learnt off by heart. However, when Yolland tries to do this to Manus, it backfires, as he perceives it as patronising (II.1). Lancey retains his authority exactly through opposing this, by emphasi sing the difference between himself and the community. It is this which gives him power. In Act Three for example, he makes Owen translate the Irish place names into English. This is known as maintenance. Both convergence and maintenance are aspects of socio-linguistics which refer to the identify the use of a name affords a place or a person. In addition to this, Lancey and Yolland show us how symmetrical and a-symmetrical systems of address or introductions occur. For example, in I.1., Captain Lancey is introduced as such to make the characters feel his authority, but then addressed by Yolland as George to illustrate the degree of familiarity between the pair. This has wider connotations with perception of social rank and stature for all the characters Im sure they couldnt fail to feel their inferiority, both to a captain, and to a lieutenant who is able to call a captain George. Owens name is perhaps the most important because it gets so confused by the English. Manus exclaims in Act One They call you Roland! They both call you Roland! And Owen, echoing Juliets That which we call a rose, | By any other name would smell as sweet (Romeo and Juliet II.2.) replies Its only a name. Its the same me isnt it? Well, isnt it? At first, even Manus agrees Indeed it is. Its the same Owen but by II.1, just a few days later, and during a process in the play through which Owen changes to become more pro-Irish and anti-English than he was before, he decides that his name is important and explodes at Yolland, demanding to be called by his proper name. Though they both find this absurd at the time and laugh hilariously (an effect of the poteen), implicit in their reaction is a mocking of the name book thereafter, a clear lack of respect for their work, and a cessation of viewing it as important or even necessary. This shows the power of language; it has the ability to change meaning and identities through something seemingly as simple as a name, things which have great effect both on individual and place. The fact remains that renaming the Irish people and places on the part of the English is a powerful resource for a dominant group which wishes to dominate and marginalize their inferiors. This is also a demonstration in the play of multi-faceted identity. Owen faces a crisis of identity when he realise his role in destroying the identity of Baile Baeg (incidentally, this means little home), and wishes to change it. This shift is, again, displayed through the language he uses, and the way he is so much more disrespectful to Lancey at the end of the play than at the start. Though this is all very well, we have no way of actually knowing if the characters know themselves what their names mean; Prospero almost certainly does, because of his vast knowledge and reading, and Manus, Hugh, and Jimmy Jack Cassey or the Infant Prodigy have such a good awareness of Greek and Latin that they almost certainly do as well. This may empower them more than a character like Lancey who may make no connections between his power over the Irish and his name. Additionally, naming and naming practises are a recurrent theme especially in Translations, showing how loss of language is powerful and can be viewed as loss of cultural identity. This has wider implications for social (the marriages), ethical (are Lancey/Prospero justified in their actions at the end of the plays?), political (who is truly Lord over the lands?) and national identities. The writers of The Tempest and Translations also present links between language and power through speeches and rhetoric in the plays. These give power to the speaker through their audiences attention to their words or language. Take the example of Prosperos many speeches in The Tempest. He clearly has a way with words, having, as Miranda puts it, a tale that would cure deafness (I.1.106). Becoming a demagogue means not only that people listen to you when you speak, because of your authority, but also that they actively seek out opportunities of listening to you, and are enraptured when they do. Interestingly though, Prosperos longest speech is a soliloquy in V.1. where he borrows Goldings 1567 translation of the sorceress Medeas speech in the 7th book of Ovids Metamorphoses (particularly lines 265-77). This is even more interesting because it is here, in this speech, that Shakespeare reveals the limitations of his power; that his magic is of the rough variety (I.1.50). This has been hinted at before when we learn that Prospero had to wait for the influences of A most auspicious star (I.1.182) in order to be able to draw the court to the Island and have them under his influences. The non-repentance of Antonio, Sebastian, Stephano and Trinculo also all measure the extent of Prosperos power. While he is able to drive them to distraction, he is unable to make them repent form their sins; he does not truly forgive his brother when he says I do forgive | Thy rankest fault all of them (V.1.131-2), but simply ignores his actions because he cannot do anything about it. Antonio has not changed and Prospero knows it. Given a second chance his brother would do the same. As C. S. Lewis puts it in The Problem of Pain (Chapter VIII: Hell; page 97; published Fount 1968): To condone an evil is simply to ignore it, as if it were true. But forgiveness needs to be accepted as well as offered if it is to be complete: and a man who admits no guilt can accept no forgiveness. In this way, Antonio cannot be forgiven, even if Prospero truly wanted to. Here then is Prosperos failure. It is the point at which his art stops short (The New Penguin Shakespeare, Introduction, p.29, by T. J. B. Spencer), and language is powerless to help him. The point of all this is that his name, which empowers him, his language, which empowers him, and all else, is not the ultimate source of his power; his magic is; and because it is limited, so he is limited. Here then, the writer of The Tempest has presented the links between language and power, but has weakened them through he involvement of another force magic. Importantly though, it is only through language that we learn the involvement of this greater force, and its restrictions. However, it is significant that this is revealed to us in a speech which no one else can hear. It is as if he is keeping it a secret; if no one else knows, or hears, it cannot be generally known. Therefore, he ironically retains the full extent of his power, though admitting its weaknesses, exactly because he chooses to deliver it in a subtle and discrete way in the language he uses, and at a time where no one will remember. He almost slips it in where no one will notice, not even readers who read and re-read The Tempest again and again. The great demagogue in Translations is Hugh. We know he is important even before he enters because the other characters speak about him so much; no fewer than 11 times in effect. His speeches serve a rather different purpose to Prosperos; Hughs speeches, which are altogether shorter, serve as the philosophising force behind the play. Examples include him discussing the nature of Irish: [to Yolland] Youll find, sir, that certain cultures expend on their vocabularies and syntax acquisitive energies and ostentations entirely lacking in their material lives. I suppose you could call us a spiritual people. And again; it us a rich language, lieutenant, full of the mythologies of fantasy and hope and self-deception a syntax opulent with tomorrows. It is our response to mud cabins and a diet of potatoes; our only method of replying to inevitabilities. (Both II.1.) Friel is not original in his ideas however. Irish novelist James Joyce presents similar ideas to Hugh in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), where the main character, Stephen Dedalus, thinks about how English has replaced Irish in Ireland, but of how the Irish people and writers have learned to master it. Many other Irish literati have taken this theme also in fact, Nobel prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney wrote a poem where he meets the ghost of James Joyce who advises him on art and language (Station Island part XII, pub. Faber Faber, 1984). Clearly then, language for the Irish is a national preoccupation; and it is these cultural-linguistic aspects of language that involve Hugh. The sense he speaks gives him the authority power to be listened to and respected by Yolland, even if he is not completely understood. This is quite an evident link between language and power for Friel, and for us. Eventually, everybody but Lancey realises that by changing the place names from English to Irish and we have already shown how names are so important, because of their meanings they are losing their identities and histories. Yolland insists on Tobair Vree retaining its name, even though indeed, because Owen still knows the story behind it and how it got its name. Following on from the power afforded language through speeches, power is also afforded the speaker through language when they use persuasive discourse. The clearest example of this is the difference between Ariel and Caliban in The Tempest. These two characters share the common interest of their freedom but go about trying to get it in different ways. Most notably, Ariel is sycophantic to Prospero, trying to win his freedom by using subtly persuasive language. For example: All hail, great master! Grave hail, sir! I come To answer thy best pleasure, bet to fly, To swim, to dive in the fire, to ride On curled clouds. To thy strong bidding task Ariel and all his quality. (I.2.189-194) This gains him/her a lot. It makes him/her Prosperos bird, sweet thing and brave spirit, and gets him/her the promise from him that: Do [thy spriting gently] and after two days but from actions, admittedly; but the actions towards Caliban, such as locking him in a rock (I.2.343 ; 361), or making him gather wood in the desert (I.2.366), come from thoughts vocalized in language, used against him. The love scenes in The Tempest and Translations present another type of power through language emotional power. In The Tempest, the love scene is between Miranda and Ferdinand in III.1.. In Translations, the love scene occurs between Maire and Yolland in II.2., and there are some obvious parallels between it and The Tempest. Most obviously perhaps, they are both meetings of two different people from two different cultures. In The Tempest, though Miranda and Ferdinand have no barrier of language such as there is in Translations, because of their shared Italian heritage, they are still from different cultures. Miranda has been brought up in solitude on an island away from all civilisation apart from her father. It has to be explained to her by her father that Ferdinand is not a spirit (I.2.412-7). Meanwhile, the not only civilised but also sophisticated court has surrounded Ferdinand all his life. Despite this he still considers Miranda as the most beautiful and virtuous creature he has ever met. His language bears this out, and has the power to make Miranda fall in love with him Full many a lady I have eyed with best regard, and may a time Thharmony of their tongues hath into bondage Brought my too diligent ear But you, O you, So perfect and so peerless, are created Of every creatures best. (III.1.39-42 ; 46-8) However, language is again not the only power that is at work, and magic contributes as well as language to make Ferdinand and Miranda fall in love Prospero confesses to us that It goes on, I see, | As my soul prompts it. (I.2.420-1) In Translations meanwhile the discrepancies between the cultures of Maire and Yolland are even huger one from the civilised and sophisticated Britain, in a professional job for a decent wage, and the other a poor peasant girl speaking a backward language. In both of these cases though, this difference in their culture only unifies the two people more overcoming their differences is something of the power of their love. The second obvious similarity here is that of their profession of love. Compare Yollands I could tell you how I spend my days either thinking of you or gazing up at your house in the hope that youll appear even for a second to Ferdinands reply to Mirandas now farewell of Maires are particularly powerful because Yolland does not understand them. Indeed, ironically, and sadly since it gives us a hint of the tragic parting that is to come in the Third Act of the play, Maire wants a different thing to Yolland she wishes to go away with him, to England, or to anywhere. Yolland meanwhile wishes to live here, or stay put in Ireland. The power of their language for us as an audience is clear; except, despite that in both plays there are disapproving parties (Lancey, Manus and the Donnelly twins in Translations, and Prospero (supposedly) in The Tempest), the final effect in Translations is for worse, with death, heartbreak and destruction, whereas in The Tempest, it ends in a marriage, and thus becomes at once lighter. Power through language has various effects then, especially in this emotional power context. In Translations, there is a great deal of exploitation of language through translation. The translator is powerful because they have control, and the opportunity, whether used maliciously or otherwise, to change the meaning of the word or speech that they are translating through language. Friel makes quite an unconcealed link between power and language through this in Translations. The clearest example is Owens translation of Lanceys introduction in Act One. He visibly does not translate what Lancey says, sweetening his words so as to not worry the village-people and make the English operation seem more legitimate. Thus: LANCEY [The job is being done] so that the entire basis of land valuation can be reassessed for the purposes of more equitable taxation. OWEN This new map will take the place of the estate-agents map so that from now on you will know exactly what is yours in law. And the disagreement between Manus and his brother that: MANUS You werent saying what Lancey was saying! OWEN Uncertainty in meaning is incipient poetry who said that? MANUS There was nothing uncertain about what Lancey was said: its a bloody military operation, Owen! Finally, it is necessary to discuss the different forms of language and how the playwrights have used them to illustrate dramatically the links between language and power. The sociolinguistic aspects of language have already been mentioned when the importance of names in presenting links between language and power was discussed, so we need not go into any more detail of that here. Language, Society and Power (ed. Thomas and Wavering) suggests 5 main aspects of language excluding socio-linguistics. The first aspect is cultural-linguistics. This refers to the aspects of language which are cultural, such as names of places which are specific, and certain turns of phrase which would not be found elsewhere. In Act three, Hugh wisely recapitulates that: It is not the literal past, the facts of history, that shape us, but the images of the past embodied in language We must never cease renewing those images; because once we do, we fossilise. Though seeming to advocate the actions of the English here, Hugh is actually just confirming that every culture will have a different language because they have different pasts, and the past is captured in language. He explains why language has power in every culture because it makes the culture evolve it is the images of the past embodied in language that shape us and stop us from fossilising. Also, the person controlling the language, controls the culture, and thus the people, and the history as well and that is a lot of power! In The Tempest, Prospero too involves himself in the cultural linguistic aspects of language when he teaches Caliban his language. Though this may be excusable because a noble-man of those times would have known no better than that their language was superior, he is never the less, by stripping Caliban of his own language which has its own meanings and past, stripping him of his identity; and here then is his power. Perhaps he would agree that We must never cease renewing those images; because once we do, we fossilise. Perhaps the question here needs to be, what is wrong with fossilising? The second aspect is aesthetics. In Translations, the Infant Prodigy is the character most interested in the aesthetics of language, or how language sounds, and the beauty of language. He is not interested in language as a form of communication, and is therefore not really interested in the Anglicisation going on around him. It will not affect him because he probably will not be around long enough to see it! This is a type of power and he is completely untroubled and unsuspecting at all time, because he appreciates language for what it is, as a poetry, rather than as a weapon in the way Manus or Lancey is using it. Yolland is the other character in Translations who loves the poetry of the language, except he prefers Irish to Greek and Latin. In II.1. he repeats the Irish places after Owen, allowing their sound to wash over him like a yogic mantra. This empowers him to speak with Maire and gives them common ground during the love-scene. In The Tempest, it is the spirits who most clearly use language for its beauty and its sound. Apart from Ariels common speech, the masque (IV.1.) is an amazing example of saying nothing in endless sentences and making it sound pretty (F. R. Leavis commentary on Henry James comes to mind)! Essentially, the plot of the masque is very simple but it is drawn out to show off special effects and elaborate costumes which were the delight of the court in James Is time. The New Penguin Shakespeare Commentary on The Tempest (p.167) explains: The verse of the masque is set off from the that of the play proper by its formality and deliberate artifice. It is filled with archaic or uncommon words and invokes a deliberately unreal, remote, mythological world [much like Jimmy Jack]. At the same time, it contrives to admit glimpses of a genuine English countryside [just as Jimmy compares ancient Greek goddesses to the Irish parish girls], and to maintain a delicate balance between those ideas of warmth and increase appropriate to a betrothal ceremony. The third aspect is communication. Language is the most important element in communication, not only what we say, but how we say it, in what tone of voice and what context. In Translations, Sarah embodies communication. After learning to speak when manus was there, she knows that language wont come back to her once hes gone because the lines of communication between the English and the Irish have broken down. This is shown most clearly in Act Three. Owen tries to persuade her otherwise but Sarah is quite accepting and shakes her head, slowly, emphatically, and smiles at Owen. The she leaves. (Stage directions). Being not able to speak is in some ways even more powerful than being able to speak. Precisely because Sarah is so quiet we notice her by her absence; she is conspicuous by her silent presence. It is a powerful symbol that communication should be silent for most of the time. Interestingly, Sarah is dominated by everyone in the play, Manus, Owen, and then Lancey who is very dem anding of her. In The Tempest, there is more than one example of broken communication; between Caliban and Prospero/Miranda, and Prospero and Antonio. The hostilities between these characters are clear throughout the play and illustrate the power of hate and jealousy. It isolates Caliban and turns his frustrations outwards to plotting against Prospero, and it makes Sebastian plot against his own brother in the same way Antonio did against his. This is expressed through language and action: Prospero says of Caliban that he is: A devil, a born devil, on whose nature Nurture can never stick; on whom my pains, Humanely taken, all, all lost, quite lost. And as with age his body uglier grows, So his mind cankers. I will plague them all Even to roaring. (IV.1.189-193) The fourth aspect is non-verbal communication (NVC), opposed to linguistic communication as above. Often, body language can show us things that speech hides, and can give off contrary signals, and what cant be done through language can be done through physical appearance and action. Both Friel and Shakespeare keep tight reigns on their characters movements through stage directions. Friel describes his characters through from what they wear, to how old they are, what type of hair they have, what their characters are, as well as foibles such as reacts physically when embarrassed or pleased [referring to Doalty]. Yolland and Maire present the clearest example of NVC in II.2. where they cannot speak each others language and therefore must rely on their actions. Here, the author has the power through language to make his characters whatever he wills. The Tempest meanwhile is Shakespeares most heavily directed play, perhaps because it was first in the Folio of 1623 and needed to give a good impression to someone picking up a book. The New Penguin Shakespeare Account of the Text (p.179) confirms: The result, neatly and intelligently divided into Acts and scenes, equipped list with a of characters and meticulously punctuated throughout, stands as perhaps the cleanest of Shakespeares texts. The fifth and final aspect is miscommunication, or the potential for it. In Translations, Owen clearly mistranslates Lanceys speech at the end of Act One, so that the people (except those who understand English such as Manus and Hugh) are unaware that the English are performing a bloody military operation. This reinforces the power he yields through his use of language. In II.2., Maire thinks she may have said something rude when Yollands reaction to her perfect recitation of In Norfolk we be sport ourselves around the Maypole is shock, and this shows the power language has when we use it and do not know what we are saying. It also shows the importance of audience; much of what we say, no matter our intentions, is perceived differently than how we anticipated. And finally, there is a potential for miscommunication in changing the place names so that they loose their meaning. In The Tempest meanwhile, there is miscommunication in the comical scene in III.2 when an invisible Ariel enters and causes havoc for poor Trinculo who is accused of reproaching Caliban for lying when really it is not him at all! Enter Ariel, invisible CALIBAN As I told thee before, I am subject to a tyrant, a sorcerer, that by his cunning hath cheated me of the island. ARIEL Thou liest. CALIBAN (to Trinculo) Thou liest, thou jesting monkey, thou I would my valiant master would destroy thee! I do not lie. STEPHANO Trinculo, if you trouble him anymore ins tale, by this hand, I will supplant some of your teeth. TRINCULO Why, I said nothing. (III.3.41-50) This is particularly good for a demonstration of language and power because this misunderstanding, though disguised because of humour, shows how violent Stephano can get towards one of his best friends, threatening first to hang him from the next tree (l.36), then later to knock out his teeth (using, appropriately, the word supplant, like he wished to overtake the island), and then, later still, threatens to cut him open (l.70) and then he actually hits him (l.77). There are many ways in which the writers of The Tempest and Translations have dramatically presented the links between language and power; through use of prose and verse by different characters, through education and colonisation, through use of names and renaming, through speeches and rhetoric, through persuasive language and through love scenes, through translation and through the six different forms of language. All these just begin to show the varied and skilled ways in which William Shakespeare and Brian Friel, in their own ages and in their different plays, share common elements and themes which make their works comparable in just such a thematic way.